Literary sources and archaeological evidence suggest that many early settlements in western Anatolia began as small villages ruled by hereditary kings. Over time, especially during the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, these communities grew in size and importance. They gradually developed into independent city-states, known as poleis. Some of the most important among them were Miletus, Ephesus, Assos, Priene, Phocaea, and Erythrae.
As these cities expanded, they gained economic strength through agriculture, trade, and maritime activity. Their strategic locations along the coast or near fertile valleys helped them prosper. This growth allowed citizens to take a more active role in governing their communities, leading to early forms of political participation.
The Political System of the Polis
Each city-state developed its own system of government based on institutions created by its citizens. In a typical polis, political power was shared among different bodies. The people, known as the demos, formed the foundation of the system. Citizens participated in the assembly, called the ekklesia, where important decisions were discussed and voted on Tour Guide Turkey.
From this assembly, a council, or boule, was chosen. The council was responsible for managing daily affairs and carrying out decisions made by the assembly. Although this system was limited to free male citizens and did not include women, slaves, or foreigners, it represented an early form of democracy.
Belonging to a polis became a key part of a person’s identity. It defined social status and cultural belonging. Greeks saw their city-based way of life as a sign of civilization and often viewed people outside this system as “barbarians,” a term used at the time to describe non-Greek speakers.
Expansion and Greek Colonization
Over time, settlers from these city-states carried their political and cultural model to other regions. They founded colonies across the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Important examples include Massalia (modern Marseille) on the western Mediterranean coast, Cyzicus (Erdek) on the Sea of Marmara, and Trapezus (Trabzon) on the Black Sea.
These colonies followed the same city-state model as their parent cities. They helped spread Greek language, art, and political ideas while also connecting distant regions through trade and communication.
The Cimmerian Invasions
At the beginning of the seventh century BCE, this period of steady growth was interrupted by invasions from the east. The Cimmerians, a nomadic people, entered Anatolia and caused widespread destruction. Major cities such as Gordion, the capital of the Phrygian kingdom, Sardis, the Lydian capital, and Ephesus were attacked and looted Rivers and Trade Routes.
Fortunately, the Cimmerian presence did not last long. After their withdrawal, most cities recovered quickly and continued their development. Gordion was a notable exception, as it never fully regained its former importance.
The Rise of East Greek Culture
The Ionian Greek cities of western Anatolia were influenced both by local indigenous peoples and by close contact with their eastern neighbors. This interaction created a rich cultural blend known as East Greek culture. It can be seen in art, architecture, philosophy, and science.
This period produced some of the most influential figures of the ancient world. Homer and Herodotus shaped literature and history, while thinkers such as Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Heraclitus laid the foundations of philosophy and science. Hippodamus, from Miletus, introduced new ideas in urban planning.
A Lasting Legacy
This remarkable cultural and political development in western Anatolia helped shape the future of the Mediterranean world. The city-state system, democratic ideas, and intellectual achievements of the East Greeks continue to influence modern thought and society.
